Humor within Leadership Theory Essay

The key to the success of any venture is strong leadership (Howe 1994). Courage, vision, and humor are key ingredients in the formula for success. Service to the community or communities also plays a critical role in the development of leadership potential. The importance of humor in this model is fundamental. Every leader has some selfdoubt, but using humor and spiritual authenticity to overcome self-doubt will lead to success and prosperity. And what is said for leaders also can be said for those who are led. Muslim humor is famous all over the Western world. There is an almost endless number of collections, anthologies, and treasuries of Muslim humor, bulging with tens of thousands of Muslim jokes and anecdotes. That the humor of every ethnic group mirrors its conditions of life, its economic, political, and social circumstances, its position vis-a-vis other population groups, is so self-evident that it needs but passing mention. What is perhaps not so apparent is that the jokes, the anecdotes, and the other manifestations of humor are keys to understanding the life of the people in question and can serve as peepholes through which we can look into otherwise hidden corners of existence. As far as muslim communities are concerned, treasuries of Muslim humor can and should be used, and humor should be applied to make the West more likable and admired by the young muslim communities of the world. The techniques and strategies of humor are equally relevant at several levels of living systems, as well as between levels. Thus, the study of humor in multicultural society is interdisciplinary and is becoming a discipline in its own right. The current work is toward methods of negotiation with humor in which the objectives are to obtain a more cooperative long-term relationship and a more rewarding substantive outcome for young muslim communities. Muslim humor is second to no other product of the Muslim mind in revealing the mental state of the Muslims in any given place and at any given time. Whether it contains selfcriticism, directing its barbs at a Muslim group from which the humorist wishes to distance himself, or whether it compares the Muslims and the Gentiles, most often to the latter’s detriment, the Muslim joke is a manifestation of Muslim thinking and feeling about the in-group and various categories of out-groups. For example, the actor Sasha Cohen in the movie Borat makes young muslims laugh by making fun of Israel, despite him being Muslim himself. It would be ridiculous to pretend that none of the people who found Sasha Cohen funny were laughing at him for the wrong reasons. Some would have been laughing at what they took to be his imitation, others at one further remove, were probably laughing at the black parts of his monstrous hybrid. They laughed louder and longer because he revealed it to be alien, eccentric, and absurd in its snobbery, stupidity, and perverse attachment to numerous forms of destructive hierarchy-class, race, religion. Those dismal qualities were not being exposed from the outside by a stranger but explored from the inside in a daring act of patriotic love. That laughter does not intersperse loathing and self-hatred with manic elation. It helps instead to cultivate the everyday, ordinary virtue involved in managing healthier relationships with otherness that are not deformed by fear, anxiety, and violence. The most powerful weapon for creative mind stretching and therefore for reconstruction is humor, especially when it is self-directed rather than outward bound. Humor directed at another serves to break the lifelong habits of a sickly (symbiotic) relationship between people. Self-directed humor is a real mind healer: By flooding the anxious mind with grotesquely exaggerated fears, it banishes phobias and obsessions. In general, it drastically corrects in the mind and in behavior habitual neurotic (self-sabotaging and destructive) patterns. Humor is a technique involves any action one take to cause the proposals, ideas, or values of another to be rejected in favor of own by getting group members to laugh at, ridicule, or scorn the other person’s proposals (Duncan, 1990). Rationalization is founded on trust and respect, and if respect is lost, so too is much of power. While power may abhor a vacuum, it equally abhors scorn. Without respect, dominance cannot be maintained. Getting others to laugh at or denigrate in any way the proposals of others that one oppose is another way to exercise power in the organization. Perhaps the ultimate in withdrawal of consent is laughter. Nyberg (1981) proposes that laughter, not revolution, is more common in overthrowing a regime. Authority fears rejection more than any other threat to its legitimacy. Especially in informal organizations, if the leader loses the respect of the fellows he or she is incapable of securing their compliance in even nominal organizational transactions. Humor is a motivated process of communication between living systems with the goal of reaching agreement about certain joint or reciprocal acts. These acts may involve management of conflict, exchange of resources, or cooperation on actions directed at the mutual environment. Behavior within a system is normally regulated by the template of that system. Internal conflict may indicate a need to amend the template. Humor can be used to modify the template so as to remove the source of conflict. For instance, when negotiation occurs between components or subsystems of a system, as in talks to manage conflict between two divisions of a corporation, the resulting humor may modify the template with respect to the roles and required behavior of the divisions. Three general stances facilitate reflexive humor: not-knowing, curious, and collaborative. They provide a way for individuals to explore, express, and share the views and meanings of situations that, otherwise, can drive them apart. Let us examine each in turn. Not-knowing Stance This stance involves taking the nonexpert position of not knowing. Taking this stance encourages humor by levelling the hierarchies of position and knowledge. While hierarchies exist in all organizations, emphasizing them discourages humor; deemphasizing them encourages humor. Reflexive humor emphasizes equal participation rather than hierarchical power, thereby bringing about a shift from hierarchy to collaboration. Humor is characterized by content and relationship aspects. We all are aware of the content aspect of communication – the information that a message is intended to convey. The egalitarian ethic of reflexive humor eliminates the positions of hierarchy and power in the humor. A not-knowing stance conveys the message that everyone is equally qualified to generate ideas, opinions, and perspectives about a situation or a problem. This means that the manager enters into the dialogue without any preconceived notions or ideas. The not-knowing stance also encourages listeners to attend to both the â€Å"outer† humor of others as well as to their own â€Å"inner† humor. This egalitarian approach encourages each participant to contribute to the mutual exploration of ideas. Curious Stance The curious stance simply means that one expresses one’s ideas in a funny manner. A dogmatic or assertive expression of ideas often hinders the creative process, but a comic mode of expression encourages others to take, leave, or develop ideas at will without vesting or territoriality. This climate encourages the free exchange of ideas on their own merit and without threat of penalty. Taking this stance helps to multiply varying perspectives on a problem and, naturally, leads to an evolved solution. A final advantage is that emergent solutions are usually not only the best thought-out and most fitting but also explored and designed by the individuals who will implement them. Collaborative Stance This stance is the result of the two preceding stances. The shared perspectives, ideas, and meanings contributed by the conversants evolve into common knowledge. This process filters many levels of perceptions and triggers deep involvement among participants making possible the co-construction of a jointly-owned outcome. They bring about better understanding among individuals whose culture and gender may create varying perceptions of the same reality. There is nothing simple about dealing with diversity. Diversity is one of the most complex and refracted areas of management because it involves the intimacy of the self with the impersonality. The first step in implementing reflexive humor in university setting is to form small, voluntary, diverse groups. Participants can come from either the same class or a variety of divisions. There are only two rules for membership in the group – commitment and confidentiality. One quickly comes to realize that the premises and stances of reflexive humor are not part of normal communication repertoire. People have learned to function in the hierarchical worlds of home, school, and, the university. In these settings they do not always relate to one another on an egalitarian basis. Much less accepted is the practice of communicating with others, whether colleagues or superiors, from a curious or not-knowing stance. Furthermore, assuming a collaborative stance in their dealings with one another is not an everyday occurrence either. One achieves competence in reflexive humor through learnable skills that require practice. One trains individuals in reflexive humor by introducing each premise and stance and allowing time for practice. The individual being trained acquires the command of one skill before moving on to the next. It may be difficult to begin the training by talking about diversity issues. To create a conducive climate, groups might begin by discussing study-related or other relatively neutral matters because such topics are more familiar and potentially less explosive. Reflexive humor is a general theory that lends itself to any communication context. Therefore, in any setting or on any topic, the process of reflexive humor will evoke multiple points of view and generate mutual self-awareness for the participants. Jointly concentrating on common tasks is an excellent way to begin diversity training. With practice, the process of reflexive humor will engender a sense of trust among its participants. The structure of reflexive humor creates an environment wherein participants can freely exchange their views and, eventually, communicate with one another on deeper and more meaningful levels. Trust and synergy. †¢ Trust reduces the amount of time and energy wasted in suspicion and politics. This time and effort can therefore be better deployed on added-value activities that help to deliver the purpose and vision. †¢ When trust, competence and alignment come together we can achieve synergy, and unlock high performance. †¢ To develop into an attuned team the members of the group have to be able to trust each other. Reflexive humor is a new approach to face-to-face communication. It offers a process by which one can access the uniqueness of each individual as well as each individual’s cultural paradigm. Through this approach, individuals can better generate information and co-construct those mutual realities that lead to enhanced problem solving. Reflexive humor is particularly useful to individuals from different cultures who wish to establish a common ground for mutual understanding and action. Humor is not just joking, and management is not just the bloodless supervision of humans in the machine-like achievement of goals. Human emotions and feelings are involved in many issues, especially in culturally diverse settings. The reflection of feeling captures the emotional aspect of human nature. The purpose of this microskill is to identify and make explicit emotions that are often concealed allowing the listener to tune into the speaker’s emotional experience. While nothing seems more ordinary than to empathize with another, the reflection of feeling has a specific structure. The reflection of feeling informs the speaker that you are aware of his or her emotions. This in turn encourages the speaker to clarify further the issue at hand. The listener needs to be cautious about inaccurately labelling feelings. Adequate time and care must be given to identify the precise feeling correctly. Mislabelling an emotion is a sure sign of misunderstanding the speaker. The reflection of meaning may be the microskill that is most relevant to the diverse workplace. It has to do with how different racial, ethnic, gender, or cultural groups organize life and experiences as well as the meaning they draw from those experiences. This microskill may appear to be very much like the preceding ones of the paraphrase (which restates thoughts) or the reflection of feeling (which reflects emotions). Indeed, the reflection of meaning combines thoughts and meanings. One should remember that both reflecting skills of humor deal with profound issues – emotions, values, meanings, and the particular sense each one of us makes of the world. Neither skill should be used insincerely or manipulatively. Inappropriate use can cause as much anger and distrust, on the one hand, as understanding and trust, on the other. However, used ethically, with a sincere attitude, no microskill is more useful, what joke one may make of situation, what values may motivate seemingly culturally different behaviors, or why an action or word that is unimportant (or important) to you may be important (or unimportant) to a colleague. Patterns of eye contact and gaze also play an underestimated role in sense of humor. White males have their own, unique, eye contact patterns. When speaking, a white male looks away from the listener most of the time, making eye contact with the listener to emphasize significant points. While listening, a white male looks at the speaker most of the time. Eye contact indicates that the listener is paying attention to what is being said. Another pattern of eye contact signals the moment when turn-taking occurs for speaker and listener. Generally, when the speaker is nearing the end of a statement, he briefly looks away from the listener. Then, upon finishing the utterance, he reestablishes eye contact to signal that it is the turn of the other person to speak. Major humor problems can result if eye contact patterns are not in synchrony. Without either conversant being consciously aware of it, at appropriate times in the white male style a trustworthy person looks in the eye, while an untrustworthy person does not. If both parties share this pattern, conversation flows smoothly. If the patterns are at odds, one may call the other shifty, while the other may feel uncomfortable. In such a situation, the humor becomes strained, and the participants are conscious of that fact. White males do not seem to employ or recognize the value of nonverbal communication, in general, or of eye contact, in particular. Yet, it is evident that eye contact patterns play a significant role in effective humor. The general white male pattern is for speakers to gaze less at listeners and for listeners to gaze more at speakers. This is how white male listeners demonstrate their intentional listening or attending behavior. One of the most significant characteristics of the Muslim verbal communication style is its oral tradition. Muslims were forcibly transported from traditional societies that were oral. The heritage of orality may be most evident in two areas of the Muslim verbal communication style: the mode of listening, and the importance of expressing feeling during interpersonal interaction. Comparative studies have found that Muslims and whites have different verbal communication styles. Whites tend to make more use of the attending or listening skills in their face-to-face communication by using a forward lean of the upper body or asking open-ended questions. Muslims tend to be more directive by giving advice or confronting. An earlier discussion of microskills noted that open questions are less direct and invite a conversational partner to provide more information on a topic while closed questions tend to retrieve specific pieces of information and limit dialogue. Depending upon the circumstances, each type of question is equally valid. However, a dialogue with predominantly closed questions can take on the tone of an interrogation. Similarly, humor replete with open questions lends a less tenuous tone by giving respondents more room to provide information at their own pace. Therefore, the type of question sets the tone of a conversation. The Muslim’s expression of feeling may also contrast with white expression of feeling. Whereas emotions may be more openly expressed according to the Muslim humor paradigm, they are more repressed by the mainstream white paradigm. According to the Muslim humor paradigm, one is more congruent when one expresses emotions. According to the norm of the white male humor paradigm, one expresses one’s reason and logic dispassionately. For many Muslims, the expression of feeling is crucial to genuine humor between individuals. Therefore, in the Muslim paradigm one is credible when one expresses emotions; one is more credible when emotions are expressed resolutely. Thomas Kochman, scholar of linguistics, holds that one achieves ultimate credibility when logic and affect harmoniously intertwine. Only then can there be congruence between one’s thoughts and verbal communication. When one represses thoughts and feelings and expresses only logical thoughts, the discrepancy is likely to emerge through nonverbal behavior, such as moving away or breaking eye contact. The meanings that may be attributed to such incongruencies according to the Muslim communication paradigm may range from deceit or hypocrisy to weakness. The Muslim style of greater and more open expression of feeling can result in behaviors that may seem overly assertive and even confrontational to many whites. In conflictual situations, Muslim nonverbals tend to include loud tones of voice, intense eye contact, and sweeping gestures. Verbally, Muslims may freely express their emotions and, according to Kochman, directly challenge not only facts or ideas but also the individuals who present them. Many may interpret such behaviors as not only confrontational but also preludes to aggression. However, for Muslims the expression of one’s mind and spirit only mean being true to oneself. Whether one stands close together or far apart can make people feel more or less comfortable in dealing with one another. Some research indicates that, while conversing, Muslim children tend to stand closer together (Baxter 1973). In her analysis of research on proxemics, Halberstadt found that Muslims tend to stand closer to one another when young but farther apart when older – Muslim primary school children stand closer together than Muslim junior high or high school students. Distances increased still more for Muslim adults. Additional research indicates that Muslim adults tend to greet each other and stand somewhat further apart than other ethnic groups. Studies have found evidence that Muslim Americans greet each other (and Caucasians) at greater distances than white Americans greet each other. A comparative study showed that Muslim Americans interact at the greatest distances, Mexican Americans interact at the closest distances, and white Americans interact at intermediate distances (Baxter 1973). Another study concluded that during interviews whites tend to sit farther away from Muslims than they do from other whites. Humor is particularly significant to Muslims. The heritage of humanism and person-oriented behavior as well as the tendency to express emotions freely inclines some Muslims to be more reliant upon humor. On the basis of her review of the literature, educator Janice Hale-Benson states that Muslims are more proficient than are whites in expressing and detecting emotions. Any sign of understanding what another person has told encourages him or her to say more. Paraphrasing more powerfully encourages continuing the humor and elaborating thoughts resulting in more details about concerns and issues. One paraphrases by restating, in one’s own words, the essence of what a colleague has said. Paraphrasing has three specific components: beginning stem; restatement; and concluding, checking stem. Men’s body postures tend to convey messages of gender power and dominance rather than of affiliation. Often such kinesic behavior discourages rather than invites humor. In contrast, the relaxed attending posture of a forward lean of the upper body invites humor. Such attending nonverbal humor reflects an individual’s openness and willingness to listen and enter into a friendly humor. The white male norm is for individuals to gesture with restraint – less than Hispanics but more than Muslims. Wrists and hands are used much more than arms to gesture. Except at times of great joy or sorrow, elbows generally are not raised above shoulder level. Those who gesture more than this norm may be considered flamboyant; individuals who gesture less than this norm may be considered uptight or cold fish. A new approach to managing diversity is necessary. Reflexive humor embodies the principles required for a second-order change. Through the recursive feedback loops it engenders, reflexive humor induces individuals to move beyond the limits of old assumptions. Furthermore, by flattening the hierarchy, its egalitarianism encourages the participation that unfolds to find new and creative solutions. This new approach to humor delineates how individuals can come together to work on constructing mutual realities. The process of reflexive humor establishes commonalities rather than magnifying differences. It provides individuals with the opportunity to come to know one another through a continuous process of mutual interchange. Such an approach inclines to modify subjective meanings and to create the common grounds that are the bases for common understanding. The reflexive process of sharing information creates the recursive loops by which one clarifies and reduces the uncertainties that all have about each other. Therefore, the nature of this change is both organic and evolutionary. The second-order change induced by reflexive humor is not the result of external injunctions by trainers to change one’s assumptions about groups, as may have been true of some previous training approaches. Rather, the change produced by humor is the result of a volitional, egalitarian, and mutually-induced process. The continuous interchange of humor creates the fertile ground where individuals studying together co-create solutions of a second-order change. This change emanates from newly-developed assumptions based on newly-generated realities. In effect, humor induces greater convergence in the thoughts, beliefs, perceptions, and meanings of the individuals who engage in it. As Johns Hopkins linguist Lawrence Kincaid puts it, an effective humor logically leads to the â€Å"state of greater uniformity, or the successive reduction of diversity† (Lawrence 1988). Thus, applying humor in the diverse society can lead to a place where the construction of new realities is possible. This is where cultural issues and cultural differences meld, and a new reality ensues as a result of the information-sharing process. Hence, myths about differences begin to diminish and common realities begin to evolve. From these emerge the common ground, the convergence that is essential for the shared understanding that common action requires. Humor is the missing link of diversity training. It is the second-order process by which individuals can mutually change themselves and each other according to their own pace and direction. Humor is perhaps the least tangible aspect of organizational life, but it seems to have very powerful and tangible effects on people from different cultures. In a high energy atmosphere one can sense people’s excitement just by watching the way they move, the way they interact and go about their business, and even the expressions on their faces. When one walks out of a very positive atmosphere, one wants to go back. If the atmosphere is stifling, unwelcoming, filled with tension, and not much fun, then one does not want to return. If the place happens to be one’s workplace, the effect can be very powerful. The microskills are specific tools that enhance the humor process. They are relatively easy to learn. The skills are best learned oneat-a-time. Following the presentation and discussion, practice provides a hands-on approach to the mastery of each skill. As one gains proficiency in one skill, another is added and practiced simultaneously. Thus, each remaining skill is added until the complete set of microskills has been acquired. The key to proficiency with the microskills is practice. While these skills are easy to comprehend and implement individually, making them part of students’ everyday behavior may not be as easy. Only through continued conscious effort in using and practicing the skills can we successfully make them part of our behavioral repertoire. They are skills that can be applied to any life setting to enhance understanding of one another and, hence, relationships. References Baxter C. ( 1973). â€Å"Interpersonal spacing in two-person cross-cultural interactions†. Man-Environment Systems, 3. D. Lawrence Kincaid. (1988). The convergence theory and intercultural communication. In Young Yun Kim & William B. Gundykunst (Eds. ), Theories in intercultural communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Howe, Susan E. S. (1994). â€Å"Exploring New Leadership Styles. † Pennsylvania CPA Journal 65, no. 1. Nyberg, David. (1981). Power Over Power. Ithaca, N. Y. : Cornell University Press. Thomas Kochman. (1981). Black and white styles in conflict. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Legal/Ethical Issues and the Solutions of a DNR

Do-not-resuscitate (DNR) orders are those given by a physician indication that in the event of a cardiac or respiratory arrest â€Å"no† resuscitative measures should be used to revive the patient (Pozgar, 2013, p. 153).Difficulties and confusion about do not resuscitate orders still exist, despite efforts to help patients, families, and surrogate decision-makers make informed choices. In this paper, issues will be addressed about the legal and ethical dilemmas about a DNR, how a DNR can affect while being used in a school system, the history of the issues of DNR, and how potential effects can be addressed to the issues for the future.Additionally, I will discuss the legal rights of the DNR to individuals as they interact with healthcare services, the implications of the patient’s bill of rights as it reflects to a DNR, and analyze selected ethical and legal case studies that have promulgated precedent-setting decisions. The majority of patients who die in hospital have a â€Å"Do Not Resuscitate† (DNR) order in place at the time of their death, yet we know very little about why some patients request or agree to a DNR order, why others don’t, and how they view discussions of resuscitation status.Some issues addressed with a study are the patients and families understanding the considerations of a typical request of full code (FC) or DNR orders. DNR patients reported a much greater familiarity with resuscitation discussions than FC patients. This was typically due to previous conversations with health care professionals, experiences with relatives, or self-realization prompted by other experiences. FC patients, on the other hand, typically reported no previous experience with this discussion, although a few had discussed it previously on admission to hospital.FC and DNR patients had very different understandings of resuscitation and DNR orders, and there were few common themes identified in their answers. DNR patients described resusc itation as violent or traumatic event, associated with â€Å"tubes† or â€Å"machines,† painful, and generally futile. FC patients, on the other hand, often described resuscitation in a more abstract way, the â€Å"restoration† of life. Finally, a small number admitted frankly that they had no clear idea of what resuscitation actually were (Downar, Luk, Sibbald, Santini, Mikhael, Berman, and Hawryluck, 2011).Although most patients are pleased with their physician’s approach to the conversation, many reported a negative emotional response overall. Both FC and DENR patients often reported being shocked or upset by the conversation, either because of the timing or the content, or simply being confronted with their own mortality. Advance Care Planning may help reduce this negative response; by normalizing the subject and raising it before an acute illness, physicians may help reduce anxiety and shock when it is raised during deterioration.Both FC and DNR pati ents emphasized the importance of honesty, clarity, and sensitivity when discussing this issue (Downar, Luk, Sibbald, Santini, Mikhael, Berman, and Hawryluck, 2011). Mr. H is an 81-year old veteran with a history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and depression. His daughters went to visit their father at 10 am and found him awake, but unable to communicate or follow commands. Empty morphine bottles were strewn around the room where he was found. Mr. H’s daughters called an ambulance and had their father transported to the emergency department of the local VA hospital.In the emergency department, there was concern for either an accidental or intentional opioid overdose, and the toxicology screen was positive for opioids. Narcan was administered with some modest and brief improvement in mental status, but Mr. H never obtained a level of consciousness that would enable him to express his treatment preferences. Progress notes written during the weeks before the inc ident indicated that Mr. H had threatened to commit suicide if his respiratory disease progressed to the point that he could not breathe.Mr. H was admitted to the medical intensive care unit, where an arterial  blood gas showed him to have respiratory acidosis. Several hours after arrival in the MICU, Mr. H became hypotensive and bradycardic. The intensive care resident on duty advised the daughters of her concern that the patient would develop respiratory failure that was likely to lead to a cardiac arrest, requiring CPR. The daughters indicated their father’s longstanding wish to be DNR. A durable power of attorney for health care (DPOA) executed five years before, although not documenting any treatment preferences, did appoint the two daughters as health care agents.The intensive care resident explained to the daughters that it was standard clinical practice to utilize CPR, even if patients had clearly expressed wishes to be DNR, if the arrest of respiratory compromise w as secondary to a suicide attempt. The daughters informed the resident that they had had several extended conversations with their father over the last year, occasioned by his failing health, in which he had communicated to them his wish not to have any aggressive care when his quality of life declined.The daughters both professed to be devout Christians, but said their father had been an inveterate atheist, whose philosophy of life was that when an individual could no longer function at an acceptable level, he had the right to refuse all life-sustaining interventions. The resident and the intensive care attending, which had now arrived, did not feel they could ethically or legally enter a DNR order, precluding the use of a life-saving intervention that could potentially reverse Mr. H’s respiratory failure, because it was secondary to a suicide attempt.At this juncture, the MICU physicians requested an urgent ethics consultation to resolve the conflict. The decision to overri de the DNR request of an individual who has attempted suicide is often framed as a clear and classical conflict between the principles of autonomy and beneficence or nonmaleficence. The other situation occurs when an individual, having authorized an EMS DNR order, attempts suicide and is discovered before the attempt becomes successful; Both circumstances provoke the classic dilemma, where the ethical wishes of rescuers to act for the good of their patient i. e., beneficence, run counter to the individual’s autonomous wishes expressed in the EMS DNR order.The rescuer cannot satisfy both of these conflicting ethical principles (Geppert, 2010). A 2010, reviewed of the clinical, ethical, and legal dilemmas related to DNR orders in suicidal patients presents a case report of a patient hospitalized for severe depression, who overdoses on the psychiatric unit and is found unresponsive with a recently obtained DNR order in her hands, The review argues that contemporary law and polic y related to DNR orders are not formulated to encompass the situation of an individual with serious mental illness.They recommend that patients be screened for suicidal ideation before a DNR order is entered, and that states and institutions clarify their response to DNR status in the context of attempted suicide. â€Å"Passive assistance† occurs when a health care provider does nothing to prevent a patient’s suicide. In the health care context, however, passive assistance has been an ethical practice for many years. For example, DNR orders have been instrumental in forming the current awareness of rights and responsibilities in the area of death and dying.A physician who refrains from attempting CPR on a patient who has made a rational choice to commit suicide is within the acceptable guidelines of the practice of medicine. If there is disagreement, every reasonable effort should be made to communicate with the patient or family. In many cases, this will lead to resol ution of the conflict. In difficult cases, an ethics consultation can prove helpful. Nevertheless, CPR should generally be provided to such patients, even if judged futile.In some cases, the decision about CPR occurs at a time when the patient is unable to participate in decision making, and hence cannot voice a preference. There are two general approaches to this dilemma: Advance Directives and surrogate decision makers (University of Washington School of Medicine, 2008). Do Not Resuscitate Orders in Schools In recent years, legal trends have expanded educational opportunities, including access to adaptive, for children and adults with wide variety of disabilities or handicaps.The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has previously addressed the ethical and legal issues involved in decisions to either limit or withdraw life-sustaining medical treatment. Parents, who, after consultation with their pediatrician and other advisors, decide to forego CPR of their child, may want this de cision respected by school system personnel. These decisions challenge all persons involved in a situation in which SPR may be given to balance personal beliefs, strong feelings, legal concerns (especially those having to do with liability), educational considerations, and other issues (Pediatrics, 2000).In contrast, the school officials may be worried that a DNR order could be misinterpreted by medically untrained staff, resulting in harm to a child, or they may worry that personnel would feel bound not to respond to an easily reversible condition, such as a mucous plug in a child with a tracheotomy. Administrators have concerns about their personnel responding to circumstances not anticipated by a DNR order, such as when a child chokes on food or is injured. School officials may be rightfully concerned about the effect of a death in school on other students.The parents of healthy children may not want their children exposed to death in a classroom or other school setting (Pediatri cs, 2000). The AAP recommends that pediatricians and parents of children at increased risk of dying in school who desire a DNR order meet with school officials – including nursing personnel, teachers, administrators, and EMS personnel, and, when appropriate, the child. Individuals involved ideally will reach an agreement about the goals of in-school medical interventions and the best means to implement those goals. Concerted efforts to accommodate all points of view will help avoid confrontation and possible litigation.Pediatricians need to assist parents and schools to review, as needed when warranted by a change in the child’s condition, but at least every six months, plans for in-school care. Pediatricians need to review the plan with the board of education and its legal counsel. Pediatricians and their chapter and district members should work with local and state authorities responsible for EMS policies affecting out-of-hospital DNR orders to develop rational proce dures and legal understanding about what can be done that respects the rights and interests of dying children (Pediatrics, 2000).History of issues with a DNR The development of CPR in the early 1960s precipitated the need for DNR orders. However, it soon became evident that the routine application of resuscitation efforts to any patient who suffered a cardiopulmonary arrest led to new problems. Thus, even in the earliest stages of its development, resuscitative measures presented a basic ethical quandary that still underpins much of the controversy over DNR orders today: the potential conflict between prolongation of life itself and the quality of the life preserved. DNR orders arose out of the need to address such suffering.In 1974, the American Medical Association noted that â€Å"CPR is not indicated in certain situations, such as in cases of terminal irreversible illness where death is not unexpected. † DNR orders developed out of the general bioethics milieu of the last quarter of the twentieth century, concomitant to â€Å"the promotion of patient autonomy: (Goldberg, 2007, p. 60). While DNR orders have, by the present day, become a familiar if not regularly encountered phenomenon, â€Å"there is less legal certainty for providers regarding DNR orders for incompetent patients† (Goldberg, 2007, p. 60).The patient Self-Determination Act of 1990, the 1983 report of the President’s Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, and the ruling in Cruzan, Quinlan and other landmark cases established the right of competent patients, through both advance directives and their surrogates, to refuse life-sustaining treatments, providing the ethical and legal basis of DNR orders. Currently, the Joint Commission standards require all health care institutions to have policies and procedures regarding advance directives and DNR orders.All 50 states have statutory requirements that uphold the autono my of competent patients to make health care decisions, including those regarding CPR, and to exercise this self-determination through authorized surrogates should they lose decision-making capacity (Geppert, 2010). A Patient’s Bill of Rights Reflected in a DNR DNR comfort care orders permit comfort care only, both before and during a cardiac or respiratory arrest. This kind of order is generally appropriate for a patient with a terminal illness, short life expectancy, or little chance of surviving CPR.DNR comfort care arrest orders permit the use of all resuscitative therapies before an arrest, but not during or after an arrest. A cardiac arrest is defined as an absence of palpable pulse. A respiratory arrest is defined as no spontaneous respirations or the presence of agonal breathing. Once an arrest is confirmed, all resuscitative efforts should be stopped and comfort care alone initiated. DNR specified orders allow the physician to â€Å"tailor† the DNR order to th e specific circumstances and wishes of the patient.For example, under this option the physician could specify â€Å"pharmacological code only,† or â€Å"no defibrillation,† or â€Å"do not intubate† (Department of Bioethics, n. d. ). If the patients’ preferences regarding resuscitation are clear, they should be respected. Patient preferences to refuse resuscitative efforts can be communicated directly by the patient, or by an advance directive, a valid Do Not Attempt Resuscitation (DNAR) order, or by the patient’s legal representative. Unofficial documentation may be considered when determining patient preferences (ACEP, 2008).It is appropriate for out-of-hospital providers to honor valid DNAR orders or out-of-hospital advance directives. Standardized guidelines and protocols should be developed to direct out-of-hospital personnel’s resuscitative efforts. When resuscitative efforts are not indicated, emergency physicians should provide appro priate medical and psychosocial care during the dying process. This may include the provision of comfort measures and psychosocial support for the patient and family.Recommendations to better DNRsFirst, to the extent permissible under individual state laws, propose that U. S. hospitals and journals begin to consider the term â€Å"do not resuscitate order† and the abbreviation â€Å"DNR† to be obsolete. These terms carry the implicit message that when interventions such as chest compressions and bag-mask ventilation are undertaken, resuscitation of the patient will result. Suggestion to use the phrase â€Å"do not attempt resuscitation† and the abbreviation â€Å"DNAR,† making clear that CPR is really only an attempt at resuscitation.Find that DNAR retains clarity about the interventions being discussed while reminding both patients and practitioners of the uncertainty of the outcome of resuscitative efforts. Second, to remind medical learners and practit ioners of the questions that must be answered at the time of admission to the hospital. Placing â€Å"attempt resuscitation† status immediately after diagnosis reminds the practitioner that the diagnosis of the patient should play a major role in determining whether resuscitation should be attempted.This modification in the admission orders also makes the specification of â€Å"attempt resuscitation† and â€Å"do not attempt resuscitation† explicit. While some policies will at first continue to presume consent for CPR, practitioners will be reminded that there is a decision to be made. Third, as a routine part of a discussion the physician should provide an explanation of how the patient’s prognosis would change should the patient experience cardiopulmonary arrest. A cardiopulmonary arrest is not a neutral event.It is thus not only indicative of the severity of illness, but also an indicator that the prognosis is worse than if the cardiopulmonary arrest h ad not happened. A discussion of these features can be of particular value to families of patients for whom an event of cardiopulmonary arrest would indicate a worsening of the underlying disease or result in irreversible damage. Fourth, physicians should help clarify prognosis by proposing a course of action to the family. In some instances, that will mean deferring to patient decision, where the medical evidence and judgment is not conclusive.In other situations, it will mean recommending that CPR not be attempted. Consistent with safeguards ensuring physician accountability and where individual state laws would permit broad physician discretion, it might even mean that some cases will necessitate reclassifying CPR as a pseudo-option that does not even warrant a mention. However, a failure to make a recommendation is more likely to cause families additional anxiety than it is to be perceived as coercion.In addition, making a proposal for a course of action can help a physician com municate the significance of a cardiopulmonary arrest given the patient’s underlying condition (Bishop, Brothers, Perry, and Ahmad, 2010, pp. 65-66). In conclusion, when patients’ and physicians’ understanding of the best decision, or of the preferred role of either party, diverge, conflict may ensue. In order to elicit and negotiate with patient preferences, flexibility is required during clinical interactions about decision making.A conventional formulation would contend that the origin of the respiratory depression from a suicide attempt was the ethically determinative factor. This perspective would logically have led to the recommendation to override the surrogates’ request for a DNR order. Yet this attribution gives more ethical weight to a choice the patient appeared to have made impulsively and proximately, with questionable decisional capacity, rather than the distal and deliberate preference of an individual with intact capacity to refuse life-su staining treatments (Geppert, 2010).The four recommendations are only the first steps along a process of a DNR change. The ultimate goal will be to reach a more balanced place where discussions about decisions can be made jointly, but with the acknowledgement that all decisions are laden with moral values inherent in the practice of medicine and life in a pluralistic society and that all judgments are themselves fallible.

Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Land Use Change

SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF LAND USE CHANGE: THE CASE OF CALAMBA CITY, LAGUNA A Research Proposal I. INTRODUCTION A. Significance of the Study Land and its uses are essential to all human communities. Every person is shaped in a range of ways by the landscape in which they live, and the products and resources produced on the land. Land and its uses are particularly important for rural communities, where many people are directly dependent on land for their livelihood, and the way land is used has a central role in defining the identity of an area and its community.Land as defined by FAO (1976) is â€Å"an area of earth’s surface, the characteristics which embrace all reasonably stable or predictably cyclic attributes of the biosphere vertically above and below this area, including those of the atmosphere, the soil, the underlying geology, the hydrology, the plant and animal population and the results of the past and present human activity, to the extent that th ese attributes influence on the present and future use of the land†.Land is an important element on earth that is involved in every human activity. This refers to land use. Land use defined in this way establishes a direct link between land cover and the actions of people in their environment (Di Gregorio & Jansen, 1998). In restrictive terms, it refers to those activities of man on, in, over and under the earth’s surface that tend to change the natural state of the land (Serote, 2004). Land use change is a general term for the human modification of Earth's terrestrial surface.Though humans have been modifying land to obtain food and other essentials for thousands of years, current rates, extents and intensities of land use change are far greater than ever in history, driving unprecedented changes in ecosystems and environmental processes at local, regional and global scales. These changes encompass the greatest environmental concerns of human populations today, includi ng  climate change,  biodiversity  loss and the pollution of water, soils and air (Williams et al. , 2008).Land use change can either be by natural cause or man induced. Land use changes made in land imply impact both on human and environment. In socioeconomic terms, land is one of three major factors of production in classical economics (along with labor and capital) and an essential input for housing and food production. Thus, land use is the backbone of agricultural economies and it provides substantial economic and social benefits. Land use conversion is necessary and essential for economic development and social progress.This land use conversion results to land use change. Environmentally speaking, land–use changes are arguably the most pervasive socioeconomic force driving changes and degradation of ecosystems. Deforestation, urban development, agriculture, and other human activities have substantially altered the Earth’s landscape. Such disturbance of the land affects important ecosystem processes and services, which can have wide–ranging and long–term consequences.There are already studies that have been conducted to determine the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of land use changes in their own respective localities or area of interest. It has been one of the major issues today. According to Sala et al. , (2000) land-use changes are so pervasive that, when aggregated globally, they significantly affect key aspects of Earth System functioning. They directly impact biotic diversity worldwide contribute to local and regional climate change (Chase et al. , 1999) as well as to global climate warming (Houghton et al. 1999); are the primary source of soil degradation (Tolba et al. , 1992); and, by altering ecosystem services, affect the ability of biological systems to support human needs (as cited by Lambin et al. , 2001). Calamba, as a fast growing city in Laguna had made different land use changes in its locality. Land use changes here occur due to different conversion of agricultural based lands into industrial and commercial uses. Different natural phenomenon like flooding contributed also it the changes in land in Calamba. With this development, there are many impacts that took place.In this study, it would primarily focus on the impacts of land-use change in ten different barangays of Calamba City, Laguna. Identifying the impacts of land-use change would help the local government unit to make necessary actions to either improve positive or prevent negative impacts in the said locality. Proper policy actions can be developed, too. The results of the study will provide information to researchers, planners and decision makers for better comprehensive land use planning. B. Review of Literature This section has literature related to the research study.Different books, journal articles reports were investigated to conceptualize and explore knowledge gap in the study of land use change at the lo cal context Land-use and land-cover change induced by both human activities and natural feedbacks have converted large proportion of the planet’s land surface (Shi, 2008). Land Use and Land Use Change Every parcel of land on the Earth’s surface is unique in the cover it possesses. Land use and land cover are distinct yet closely linked characteristics of the Earth’s surface. Land use is the manner in which human beings employ the land and its resources.Examples of land use include agriculture, urban development, grazing, logging, and mining. In contrast, land cover describes the physical state of the land surface. Land cover categories include cropland, forests, wetlands, pasture, roads, and urban areas. The term land cover originally referred to the kind and state of vegetation, such as forest or grass cover, but it has broadened in subsequent usage to include human structures such as buildings or pavement and other aspects of the natural environment, such as s oil type, biodiversity, and surface and groundwater (Meyer, 1995).Land use affects land cover and changes in land cover affect land use. A change in either, however, is not necessarily the product of the other. Changes in land cover by land use do not necessarily imply a degradation of the land. However, many shifting land use patterns, driven by a variety of social causes, result in land cover changes that affect biodiversity, water and radiation budgets, trace gas emissions and other processes that, cumulatively, affect global climate and biosphere (Riebsame, Meyer, & Turner, 1994).Land cover can be altered by forces other than anthropogenic. Natural events such as weather, flooding, fire, climate fluctuations, and ecosystem dynamics may also initiate modifications upon land cover. Globally, land cover today is altered principally by direct human use: by agriculture and livestock raising, forest harvesting and management, and urban and suburban construction and development. There are also incidental impacts on land cover from other human activities such as forests and lakes damaged by acid rain from fossil fuel combustion (Meyer, 1995).Changes in land cover driven by land use can be categorized into two types: modification and conversion. Modification is a change of condition within a cover type; for example, unmanaged forest modified to a forest managed by selective cutting. Significant modifications of land cover can occur within these patterns of land cover change. Conversion is a change from one cover type to another, such as deforestation to create cropland or pasture.Conversion land cover changes such as deforestation have been the focus of many global change research agendas (Riebsame, Meyer and Turner, 1994). Serote in 2004 stated that conversion of land on the other hand can be classified into irreversible and reversible conversion. It is reversible if the soil cover and landforms are not substantially changed and therefore present a variety of opti ons for future reuse (for example croplands can be converted to pastures and reverted to croplands again as the need arises).Irreversible conversion occurs when the original character of the land is changed to such a degree that the reversal to its former use or condition becomes very difficult if not impossible. Example of this is open pit mining and quarrying. The loss of rainforests throughout the tropical regions of the world as a result of deforestation for timber resources and conversion to agricultural lands has become a topic of global attention with the aid of widespread media coverage. Research specialists such as Skole and Tucker (1993), Skole et al. (1994), and Kummer and Turner (1994) perform extensive studies in an attempt to bring further attention to this situation by focusing on the social implications and the environmental degradation associated with tropical deforestation in the Amazon of South America and in Southeast Asia. Yet, with all the research, awareness, and attention of the world, this potentially devastating phenomenon continues. Modeling land use change In a research study made by Lim, Pijanowski and Engel in 2005, they employed a land use model called Land Transformation Model (LTM).The LTM model is designed to forecast land use change over large regions. It relies on GIS, artificial neural network routines (ANNs), remote sensing and customized geospatial tools. The driving variables include a variety of social, political and environmental factors, such as distance to transportation, proximity to amenities (such as rivers, lakes, and recreational site), density of surrounding agriculture, exclusive zones, and population growth. Information derived from an historical analysis of land use change is used to conduct forecast studies.The model is a desk top computer application, and it mainly follows four sequential steps: (1) processing/coding of data to create spatial layers of predictor variables; (2) applying spatial rules that r elate predictor variables to land use transitions for each location in an area; the resultant layers contain input variables values in grid format; (3) integrating all input grids using one of the three techniques, including multi-criteria evaluation, ANNs, and logistic regression; and (4) temporally scaling the amount of transitions in the study area in order to create a time series of possible future land uses.Detailed descriptions of the LTM can be found elsewhere (Pijanowski et al. , 2000) The LTM model has been applied and validated in a variety of locations around the world to help understand what factors are most important to land use changes and to simulate land use change in the past, present and future (Pijanowski et al. , 2000). It also offers the ability to link changes in land use to ecological process models, such as groundwater flow and solute transport (Boutt et al. , 2001) and forest cover change (Brown et al. , 2000). Urbanization and Land Use ChangeAt least two br oad urbanization pathways lead to different impacts on rural landscapes. In the developed world, large-scale urban agglomerations and extended peri-urban settlements fragment the landscapes of such large areas that various ecosystem processes are threatened. Ecosystem fragmentation, however, in peri-urban areas may be offset by urban-led demands for conservation and recreational land uses (Sack, 1992). Urbanization affects land change elsewhere through the transformation of urban-rural linkages. Urbanization in the less-developed world outbids all other uses for land adjacent to the city, including prime croplands.Cities attract a significant proportion of the rural population by way of permanent and circulatory migration, and the wages earned in the city are often remitted by migrants to rural homelands, in some cases transforming the use of croplands and creating ‘‘remittance landscapes’’. Perhaps most importantly, this urbanization changes ways of life u ltimately E. F. Lambin et al. , (2001) associated with demographic transitions, increasing expectations about consumption, and potentially a weakened understanding of production–consumption relationships noted for the well-developed world.Rapid land-use changes often coincide with the incorporation of a region into an expanding world economy (Lambin, et al. , 2001). Remote Sensing In the broadest sense, remote sensing is the measurement or acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon, by a recording device that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object. It is the utilization at a distance (as from aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, or ship) of any device for gathering information about the environment. The technique can make use of devices such as a camera, laser, radar, sonar, seismograph or a gravimeter.Modern remote sensing normally includes digital processes but can be done as well with non-digital methods. While all astronomy could be considered remot e sensing (in fact, extremely remote sensing) the term â€Å"remote sensing† is normally only applied to terrestrial observations. Examples of remote sensing are very numerous. For example: a. Topographic maps were often produced from stereographic pairs of aerial photographs. Trained personnel would then trace the shape of the land into maps. b.Earthquakes are located (after the fact) by comparing seismograms taken at different locations; the relative intensity and precise timing yield information about the location and nature. c. Digital elevation maps can be produced by interferometric synthetic aperture radar, a process in which an aircraft, spacecraft or satellite passes over the target area while emitting a series of radar pulses. Combining the data from these pulses yields a detailed map containing information about ground cover and possibly elevation or movement on a scale of centimeters.The data usually covers a many kilometers wide (Gupta & Parakash 1998). Profile o f the City Calamba City is a first class city in the province of Laguna, Philippines. Situated only 54 kilometers south of Manila, about an hour by chartered bus, Calamba City is a popular tourist destination with its hot spring resorts. It also an important modern industrial center in CALABARZON region as shown by the larger number of industrial parks and business estates that are located in the city. According to 2006 census, it has a population of 360,281 inhabitants. CLUP, 2010-2015) It is reported that this city is among the fastest growing urban centers in the Region. Calamba city is famous for its historical tribute as the hometown of our national hero. According to the NAMRIA in 1999, residential sector takes up 48% of the total land area, while 44% is allotted for Industrial use. The commercial sector only consumes 3% of the total land area – the other 5% consist of other land uses. C. Objectives of the Study The general objective of this study is to determine the so cio-economic and environmental impacts of land-use conversion at the local level.Specifically, this study endeavors; 1) To map out the current land use situation of Calamba City using GIS (to see the historical land use situation of the said locality); 2) To identify both the positive and negative impacts of land-use conversion in six barangays of Calamba City; 3) To identify causes of land-use conversions and land use change; 4) To assess the existing policy and mitigation strategies to the impacts of land use conversion; and 5) To propose recommendations on comprehensive land use planning of Calamba City.D. Date and Place of Study The survey and other data gathering method (Key informant interviews and focus group discussion) will be conducted from June, 2012 to August, 2012 in selected barangays in Calamba City. Analysis and interpretation of data will be done from September, 2012 to November 2012. The researcher aims to finish the study by January, 2013. II. MATERIALS AND METHOD OLOGY A. Materials Secondary Maps of 1:50,000 scale (Topographic, Land Use/Land Cover, Political boundary) †¢ Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) of Calamba City †¢ Satellite Imagery (30 meters resolution Terralook ASTER image) †¢ Geographic Information System (GIS) Software (ArcInfo Desktop) †¢ Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver †¢ Semi-structured questionnaires B. Methodology Secondary data collection Secondary data will be gathered primarily from the City of Calamba, Laguna to serve as baseline information for the study area.These shall include the CLUP report of Calamba City, secondary baseline maps in digital and print format (Topographic, Land Use/Land Cover, Political boundary). Other pertinent information (demographic, economic) shall be likewise collected and consolidated from other government agencies (National Statistics Coordination Board, Department of Interior and Local Government etc. ). Primary data collection The freely downloadable 30 meters resolution satellite imagery will be requested from United State Geological Society (USGS) website (http://glovis. usgs. gov). This shall be utilized in the generation of p-to-date land use map of the study area. ArcInfo Desktop GIS software shall be utilized in the generation of the baseline maps, spatial analyses and land use classification. All GIS maps shall have Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) North Zone 51 format projection and WGS1984 datum. Unsupervised image classification. An unsupervised image classification will be done for aster satellite imagery. This image classification will serve as the basis for the supervised classification. These classifications will be validated thru ground truthing and high-resolution satellite imagery of google earth.Supervised classification. The training units or signatures of the different land uses will be prepared in ArcInfo Desktop by digitizing at least 100 polygons for each land uses. Supervised image classification will pro ceed using maximum likelihood method for the final landuse maps. Household survey, Key Informant Interview and Focus Group Discussions (FGD). Key Informant Interview (KII) will be conducted to selected LGU officials of the City of Calamba with emphasis on the issues and concerns related to land use, as well as the perceived socio-economic impacts of land use in their locality.Similarly, a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) will be done to gather relevant information base on the consensus of randomly selected barangay officials and residents of the City of Calamba. A random household survey will also be conducted using semi-structured questionnaire to gather basic household demographic information, as well as knowledge and perception on the socio-economic impacts of land use change. III. BUDGETARY REQUIREMENTS |Particulars |Estimated Cost |Remarks | |I.Data Gathering | |   | |A. Travel |Php 9,000. 00 |Includes ground truthing and validation | |B. Supplies and Materials |4,000. 00 |   | |C. Sundries | |   | |1.Contractual services (field guide, enumerators) |12,000. 00 |Hiring of field guides and enumerator | |2. Photocopying |1,000. 00 |   | |II. Writing of Thesis | |   | |A. Computerization/Typing |4,000. 00 |   | |III.Reproduction/Printing |6,000. 00 |   | |TOTAL |Php36,000. 00 |   | REFERENCES Food and Agiculture Organization. 1976. Land quality indicators: aspects of land use, land, soil and plant nutrients. Rome, Italy (Retrieved from http://www. fao. org/docrep/W4745E/w4745e0b. htm) Gupta, R. P. , & Prakash, A. 998, Reflection aureoles associated with thermal anomalies due to subsurface mine fires in the Jharia Coalfield, India. International Journal of Remote Sensing, pp. 2619-2622. Lambin, E. F. , Turner II, B. L. , Geist, H. J. , Agbola, S. B. , Angelsen, A. , Bruce, J. W. , et al. , 2001. The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyond the myths. Global Environmental Change 11 (4), 261–269. Meyer, W. B. 1995. Past and Present Land-use and Land-cover in the U. S. A. (Retrieved from http://www. gsdi. rg/gsdiconf/gsdi10/papers/TS48. 1paper. pdf) Serote, E. M. 2004. Property, patrimony, and territory: Foundations of Land Use planning in the Philippines. School of Urban and Regional Planning, DIliman Quezon City. Shi, W. Z. 2008. Spatial Data Transformation in Urban Geographic Information Systems,  Technologies and Applications in Urban Geographical Information Systems. Shanghai Science and Technology Publishing House, 1996, pp. 59-69. Skole,D. L. & Tucker, C. J. 1993. :Tropical deforestation and habitat fragmentation in the Amazon. Retrieved from http://www. ciesin. org/docs/002-115/002-115. html) Turner, B. L. & Meyer, W. B. 1991. Land use and land cover in global environmental change: Considerations for study. International Social Sciences Journal 130, 669–667 Williams, M. Richardson, D. , Reichstein, M. , Stoy, P. C. , Peylin, P. , et al. ,2008. Improving land surface models with Fluxnet data. Published in Biogeosciences. (Retrieved from http://www. geos. ed. ac. uk/homes/pstoy/WilliamsBG09. pdf) ———————– C. Detailed Schedule of Activities

Training and Development (8) Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Training and Development (8) - Assignment Example This involves three stages: anticipatory, encounter and settling in. The anticipatory stage deals with potential employees. These candidates from previous experience, interaction with peers and managers have an idea of what the company stands for and how it operates. However, Mallor et al (2010) suggests that they should be given a realistic job preview to help them make an informed decision on whether to work for the company. This gives them the true picture of the company instead of relying on hearsay hence they have realistic expectations about the company and working conditions. This information can be obtained from brochures, magazines and company website. Once the potential candidates have been recruited, they move into the encounter stage. At this stage, the employee needs to understand his/her roles and responsibilities so as to perform according to expected standards. He/she also needs to understand the company policies and procedures especially the company culture as it det ermines the behavior of employees. The organization structure indicates the reporting relationships and interrelationships in the organization thus it is crucial for employee to understand it. Though they may have previous experience, each company has its way of doing things hence they need to be given appropriate training and orientation. They also need manager’s support in form of information about their job and the company, challenging work and high-quality relationship (Mallor et al. 2010 p. 479). The last stage is settling in. At this stage, employees are already familiar with their job tasks, company policies and procedures and have developed interpersonal relationships (Mallor et al. 2010). However, they need to deal with various work conflicts such as conflicting job demands. They also have to balance work and family life or nonwork activities so as to be productive employees. They also need to understand how their performance is to be evaluated and how they can progr ess in their career. 2. Why are content and process important in the design of employee orientation programs? What content should an effective orientation program include?   What process should be used? Orientation involves familiarizing the employees with the company history, company goals, performance requirements and interpersonal relationships (Mallor et al. 2010 p. 480). The success of employee orientation programs depends on the content and the process used. These programs are aimed at enhancing commitment and engagement from employees and consequently loyalty to the company which leads to reduced labor turnover and competitive advantage. The content helps the employees to understand their work, the company as well as policies and procedures. An effective orientation program includes company level information such as policies and procedures, employee and union relations, compensation and benefits and customer relations. It also includes department level information such as j ob duties and responsibilities, performance expectations, and introduction to peers. The content also entails the relation of individual to community such as how to find suitable housing and how to deal with family adjustments (p. 481). The process of orientation involves filling forms, scheduling and attending orientation meetings, interacting with managers and coworkers as well as familiarizing with products and services (P. 481). 3. How could you

The effects of Japanese earthquakes to the rest of the world Essay

The effects of Japanese earthquakes to the rest of the world - Essay Example However we all strong and weak alike always lives at the mercy of mother nature and when she unleashes her anger on us; most improved of the human alarming system and protective measures have little to offer. On 11 March, 2011 Japan courted one of the worst earthquake attacks in the history of the nation that measured 8.9-9.0 in Richter scale. The â€Å"earthquake occurred offshore of the east coast of the Tohoku region on the Island of Honshu, Japan.† (RMS Special Report) After the main shock several smaller one follow suit. This earthquake was followed by high tidal wave or tsunami. Adding to the agony the combination of earthquake and tsunami resulted in atomic reactor malfunctioning and eventual burst of the same. These series of catastrophic events without any doubt have resulted in loss of thousands of lives but the cumulative dangers it holds embedded within itself perhaps outweighs the immediate loss that human life living in Japan has incurred so far. This article lea ds an opinion based illustration of the impact of Japanese earthquake on the local and global community regarding the short and long run economy and environment. First of all the immediate impact of the earthquake and the tsunami is on the local community through the destruction of thousands of house, properties and human life. A primary estimate of insured property loss has accounted that only in terms of property a loss equivalent to US$12bn – 35bn has been incurred in this particular earthquake. It should also be kept in mind that this is only a preliminary estimate that is expected to row with time and in actual terms. (Fitch Ratings ) The city of Sendai was worst hit and in entire Japan well over 12 million people who accounts for 10% of the total Japanese population have been significantly affected from this earthquake. Apart from the property an estimated number of 10000 to 50000 cars must have been damaged by the earthquake. Numerous numbers of small sea vessels along with 90 large commercial vessels succumbed to the quake and tidal wave that followed it. Above all over 10000 people are reported missing or dead following the earthquake. (EQECAT; RMS Special Report) Considering the nuclear reactors; at least two are severely damaged. The Fukushima reactor or reactor 1 and reactor 3 both are at danger. These plants are contaminating the environment through the nuclear leakage and radiation has spread as far as Glasgow from them. This particular incident exposes the local and global residents alike since nuclear contamination is a great danger that can spread miles and over continent and can remain in the environment for hundreds of years. Already Russia, China, USA and even Korea have expressed great concern over this issue. (News Flavor) The economic effect on Japan and the rest of world from this earthquake is worth discussing and will have short run and long run dimension. First and foremost the immediate government response and the response th rough aids from the bank of Japan will burden the economy immediately. Funds have to be canalized from other sectors in rescue and restore operations and that will definitely slow down the growth and development process that the nation was experiencing so far. Already the central bank of the country the Bank of Japan has

The Rise of the Papacy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Rise of the Papacy - Research Paper Example Conquerors took over Roman Empire territories, which weakened the stronghold of Julius Caesar and Augustus for example, Odoacer took over Italy, German invaders ruled western provinces. Roman Empire fell after splitting into two parts; Western and Eastern empires ruled by separate Emperors1. This gave room for moral decadence, financial troubles, corruption, and weakening of military power. These factors provided a loop way for barbaric hordes to attack and seize the empire. Papacy power rose after the fall of Roman Empire led by the Bishop of Rome. Uprising of church supremacy was started way back in 6th century; Bishops of Rome were among the most acknowledged and idolized popes of the world. Catholic Church created their own institutions of power known as Papacy, which administered that citizens are being given their due rights by the government. Christendom provided a tranquil environment for Papacy to manifest over a long period of time. Roman Catholic Church is strongly identif ied with St. Paul and Peter who were disciples and messengers of God. This pressurized Roman emperor Constantine to legalize Christianity as the national religion. Popes were at first regarded as advisors in matters pertaining to the empire, later on, Bishops gained superiority and became judges on Ecclesiastical disputes within the empire which prompted its attainment of new powers. Creation of churches across the Empire was done by Western missionaries who led to the spread of communion churches throughout the Empire. During Diocletian’s reign, Christianity was not allowed to be practiced in Roman Empire and they were being persecuted .This practice continued for decades until Emperor Constantine tolerated Christianity and gave them freedom of operation in the country.1 Pope accessed large area to establish his rule.Conversely,the church spread out to non-western Empire individuals who got a direct channel to oversee the operations of the Emperor. Furthermore, Pope was best owed the universal powers over the church and no one had a right to limit him from exercising these powers. Apart from caring for souls, Bishops were involved in decision making, advice, and policy analysis within the empire. Papacy supremacy dates back to the holy bible where God gave Peter blessings to rule the earth. During the first three centuries of the reign of Christianity, church was involved in series of activities for instance; they acted as rulers within the Christendom, and resolved conflicts. Powers of Bishops increased to extent they ran the church parallel to the political systems. They could make their own policies and constitution without help from the politicians .Christians in the whole world complained about the powers and privileges Popes in Rome were commanding in the offices. This papal rule was not attained with ease; it was through numerous struggles between the holy and The Empire At Large. Every pope who was appointed must tussle to ensure that their posi tion in the Empire was never tainted by the political leaders for example, Saint Gelasius I who headed the church from 492 until 496 struggled with Anastasius emperor to liberate the church from oppression. To maintain its supremacy, Papacy extended its rule to the West in 6th to 8th Century in order to escape

Ethical Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Ethical Question - Essay Example I will then head straight to the university’s head office to seek assistance. Since, it is prudent for the university’s management to be aware of what has transpired in the institution premises because they are accountable of everything and everyone within its confinements. I would then call the nearest police station and inform them of what has transpired and the location of the accident. This is to prove the accident was not intentional besides showing that I am ready to face the consequences. The management will then try as much as possible to locate the car’s owner with the registration number, which I took with the intention of discussing with owner on how to resolve the issue. Together with him or her, we would discus amicably the best way besides agreeing to cater for any caused damages. The reason for these actions will encompass upholding my dignity and ethics that I normally keep all through my life (Jennings 30). Secondly, I will be adhering to the already set laws that govern the state and dictate diverse restitutions, which any offender ought to observe. This is to maintain good and health interrelationships with the owner of the car despite both of being strangers to each other (Jennings 30). Therefore, my actions will be ensuring the person whom I have backed into his or her car will not feel much wronged. This is especially when he or she emerges and fails to see who was responsible for what has happened to his or her

Data Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Data Analysis - Essay Example these variables in each institution, variables in clued job knowledge, communication and English skills, quality of work, cooperation, punctuality and attendance, productivity and initiative. All these variables are important to an organization and will determine the profitability and productivity of an organization, an organization that employs workers with required job knowledge, good communication skills and computer skills are much more likely to have competitive advantage over the others, also these organization will increase their productivity which means that less inputs will be needed in terms of labor hours top accomplish certain tasks, as a result the organization will tend to record higher profits. Using the data collected we use a scale to quantify this data and determine the institution that records higher values for each variable, the higher the value means that the institution is more efficient in providing these skills to their students. This information will help these institutions to improve on their weaknesses and also it will be important to employing organizations whereby they will be in a position to choose the best institution to undertake training. The first step was to prepare a questionnaire that would be appropriate in collecting required data, the aim of this study was to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each organization in training students, therefore the questionnaire had to include measures of the job knowledge, productivity, communication and other personal qualities. The questionnaire was pretested to rectify any biasness and when the questionnaires were ready they were given to the respondents. The population was then identified in order to determine the sample size. The population used in this study was the organizations whose training sites were the three training institutes which amounted to 37 organizations. A random sample of 50 respondents was selected from the organizations and questionnaires were emailed.

Ketobemidone Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ketobemidone - Research Paper Example This paper explores the synonyms of Ketobemidone, its chemical structure, its discovery and synthesis, physical and chemical properties as well as its uses. Various Names for the Compound Ketobemidone is a compound with numerous names. The compound is also using other multiple synonyms such as: 1-[4-(3-Hydroxyphenyl)-1-methylpiperidin-4-yl]-1-propanone; Cetobemidone; Ethyl 4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-1-methylpiperidin-4-yl ketone; Cliradon; Cliradone; Cetobemidon; Cymidon; Hoechst 10720; Ciba 7115; Ketobemidonum; 1-[4-(m-Hydroxyphenyl)-1-methyl-4-piperidyl]-1-propanone; 1-Propanone, 1-[4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-1-methyl-4-piperidinyl]-;1-Propanone, 1-[4-(m-hydroxyphenyl)-1-methyl-4-piperidyl]-; NSC 117863; or A 21 Lundbeck1. The Chemical Structure of Ketobemidone The chemical structure of the compound is: How Ketobemidone Was Discovered and Synthesized â€Å"The history of synthetic drugs with morphine-like effect is relatively short, dating back only to 1939, when Eisleb produced the now famous 1-methyl-4-phenylpiperidine-4-carboxylic acid ethyl ester.†2 Eisleb together with his colleagues first synthesized Ketobemidone in 1942 at I.G. Farbenindustrie’s laboratory at Hoechst amidst World War II. However, for many years, research had been on-going to find synthetic substances with the same structure as morphine. Small, Eddy together with their co-workers at the United States Public Health service3 worked tirelessly to find these synthetic substances with morphine-like structure. The experiments were founded on the supposition that morphine’s analgesic effect was intrinsic in dibenzofuran, phenanthrene, dibenzofuran as well as carbazole nucleus, which were identified as components of morphine. Earlier attempts were however futile with no development of any synthetic compound with desirable analgesic effect. Organic chemistry experiments rarely yield expected results and products obtained usually come by chance. The analgesic activity of 4-phenylpiperidine s was discovered by chance in 1940s in the course of research by scientists to find antispasmodic characteristics on analogues of cocaine.4 The main focus of Eisleb and Schaumann was to find an alternative compound for atropine. The researchers discovered that the compounds had high levels of analgesic properties apart from their spasmolytic properties. Carboxylic acid exhibited the best outcomes and was later sold in Germany as dolantin, which was wrongly assumed to be non-addictive. As research intensified, several other compounds with structures like morphine were developed including methadone, which was discovered in Germany during the Second World War.5 The initial study of ketobemidone became available in print in 1946 after which it took short duration before being introduced in clinical medicine. In 1954, the Economic and Social Council urged governments to stop producing and trading on ketobemidone arguing that it is a dangerous drug.6 Ketobemidone is synthesized by alkylat ion of (3-methoxyphenyl) acetonitrile with bis (2-chloroethyl) methylamine, which is then reacted with ethylmagnesiumbromide. The resulting product is then O-demethylated with hydrobromic acid to form ketobemidone. â€Å"1-Methyl-4-(m-methoxy)phenyl-4-cyanopiperidine on reaction with ethyl magnesium bromide forms ketone intermediate, which on demethylation with hydrobromic acid affords ketobemidone.†7 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Ketobemidone Physical Properties

Corrections Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Corrections - Case Study Example image created in the media can be remedied if the media stopped focusing on the profitability of the content and instead promote giving accurate information about prison facilities. This will make the public to be sentient about the functions of prisons and their significance in law enforcement. a) Some of the media stereotypes, which are associated with correction facilities, include the following. Correctional facilities are depicted as places characterized by physical brutality where the inmates are subjected to violence (Surette 179). The prisons are also stereotyped to have corrupt individuals who benefit from the situation of the inmates. b) The perceptions on the image of the institutions can be addressed if the media focuses on the actual situation in the prisons. This will give the public a clear insight into the operations of the facilities hence rid the society of the stereotypes. The media are integral in changing the negative stereotypes associated with correction

Antebellum Period Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Antebellum Period - Essay Example The reform movements during the late antebellum period aimed at securing equality among the citizens of United States. This period marked the beginning of the search for democracy, justice and equality in the United States history. The era of reform during the late antebellum period got marked by significant reform movements. One of the movements got to be the second great awakening which got characterized by massive religious revivals (Brands 292). Religious revivalism oversaw the birth of women’s rights movements, abolition of slavery and the temperance movement. The temperance movement aimed at reducing alcohol consumption as a way of promoting morality within the society (Brands 295). Religious reform became viewed as a way towards order and cultural unity. There was the birth of the abolitionist movement which campaigned for the abolition of slavery in the United States. This movement grew out of the moral persuasion that human bondage was morally wrong. They called for e mancipation of slaves especially in the south. Protests against slavery grew during this period. They faced great resistance from southern slaveholders who viewed abolition of slavery as a loss of free labor (Brands 303). The women’s right movement got formed during the antebellum era. Many women called for equality and political right to vote. They also rejected the doctrine of separate spheres by calling for gender equality. Women aimed to change unfair laws, which provided husbands with the right to control property and children. The women’s rights movement got born in Seneca Falls, New York during a convention that took place for two days (Brands 308). Young America was a movement in the 1840s and 50s. It was a collection of writers, politicians, and entrepreneurs who viewed themselves as the force of young America. This era marked a period when America was experiencing economic growth, technological advancement and expansion of its territories (Brands 314). The yo ung Americans era marked the birth of democracy in the United States although restricted to gender and race or color. The new found democracy got associated with the election of Andrew Jackson as president who won by popular vote. Political democracy got marked by suffrage of all white men (Brands 247). Social democracy took the form of equal citizenship and opportunity for all though, it became limited to race and gender. This era also marked the disappearance of social aristocracy and inherited social ranks. Equality became marked by the abolishment of certain legal requirements for different professions ensuring that academically qualified and non academically qualified individuals practiced together ensuring fair competition (Brands 248). Conclusion The era of reform and the democracy of young America can be related. Both trends aimed at social reforms. The era of reform aimed at ensuring moral suasion in society through religious reforms by ensuring individual and public morali ty (Brands 292). Democracy of young America aimed at ensuring equity among all citizens although it limited itself to race and gender. Equal opportunity was to be provided for all white men (Brands 247). Both trends got political. The era of reform instigated the birth of women’s right and the abolitionist movements. Women’s right movement called for equity in rights and laws pertaining to both gender. The abolitionist movement called for an end to slavery (Brands 302). The young Americ

Theories Of Representation Essay Example for Free

Theories Of Representation Essay They say two heads are better than one and I suppose, having two codes to represent knowledge is more advantageous than just relying on one code. Visual and verbal codes of representations enable the mind to have a more vivid memory of the information or concept that needs to be recalled (Kosslyn, Ganis Thompson, 2001). For example, if I need to remember directions in going to my friend’s place in a city I am visiting for the second time, I could easily visualize the appearance of the streets, the stores in the neighborhood and the location of my friend’s house, at the same time, this picture in my head can be validated by the verbal codes of the names of the street, the signage in the stores and a landmark in the neighborhood. If I relied only on visual codes, the appearance of suburban homes in a large neighborhood would be similar and I would have difficulty ascertaining which one is my friend’s place, on the other hand, if I only used verbal codes, then I have to spend the day going around the neighborhood reading each street sign until I get to the right street. Likewise, using both verbal and visual cues aid in remembering texts and information needed to successfully pass a test or an examination. Verbal codes are words, and when we memorize concepts and information, it is by memorizing the words, phrases and even sentences and paragraphs. Visual codes refer to pictures or our mental representations of what we have seen (Neath Suprenant, 2003). I study using my notes and outline of a particular subject, I read my notes, I read the book and I found out that I seem to remember more if I visualize the position of the text as I read it, or the kind of pen I used or even the color of the paper. It helped me remember information I have missed if I rely on verbal codes alone, since we know that our capacity to remember words are very small. Moreover, I find that children and even adults learn more when they are presented with information using rich media, the use of the computer and even direct instruction uses both verbal and visual cues (Kurtz, Gentner Gunn, 1999). Spelling programs in the computer present a series of letters and the child has to arrange the letters to spell the word correctly, the word is represented by a corresponding picture and when a child is confronted with the picture, she would associate the word to it and vice versa. For adults, skills training usually are hands on, experiential or involve modeling behavior or role playing. The learners are given input or materials in text to describe, define and understand the specific skill to be learned, the teacher then demonstrates the skill, which would be committed to memory facilitating the learning of new skills (Pylyshyn, 2002). An example is the use of machinery, if the new employee works with equipment for the first time, he/she can read the manual and then tinker with the machine to see how it would work, and again the learning of skills is based on the visual operation of the machine and the verbal codes in the manual. The verbal codes serves as the guide to how the machine should be operated, while the visual codes   present in the sequence of operations like what button to press first and what knob to turn is the behavioral manifestation of successful learning of the new skill. There are instances however wherein one of the codes would be dominant and the other supports or enriches the dominant code (Neath Suprenant, 2003), for example, in remembering texts and definitions, one would rely on verbal codes, but visual codes can help in remembering what those words were. In the same way, if we have to remember a scene from a movie, visualizing the scene would be more important, but remembering what was said in that scene would help us identify what the scene was about. In conclusion, two codes are better and we need to discover how it could work together to improve memory and learning. References Kosslyn, S., Ganis, G. Thompson, W. (2001). Neural foundations of imagery. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2: 635-642. Kurtz, K., Gentner, D. Gunn, V. (1999). Reasoning. In D.E. Rumelhart B.M. Bly (Eds). Cognitive Science: Handbook of Perception and Cognition 2nd   ed. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 145-200. Neath, I. Suprenant, A.(2003). Human Memory. Belmont, CA., Wadswoth/Thompson Learning. Pylyshyn, Z. (2002). Mental imagery: In search of a theory. Behavioral and Brain Science, 25: 157-238.

Basic philosophy of the skilled helper model

Basic philosophy of the skilled helper model In the first edition of The Skilled Helper,published in 1975, Egan expounded a model of the helping process with the goal to establish a training technology that applies to helper training and to the helping process itself. The subtitle of The Skilled Helper is A Problem Management and Opportunity Development Approach to Helping, and this reflects Egans focus on problem solving and goal setting rather than dwelling on the past causes of problems. It provides a structured approach to the helping process rather than providing a theory of personality. The Skilled Helper is now in its ninth edition, and with each edition Egan has developed and refined the model, with differing emphasis upon its various stages. Egan does not claim the model asThe Egan Model but regards it as his own version of the basic dynamics of the problem management process (Interview 1995). It is influenced by the Person Centred approach of Carl Rogers and the Cognitive Behavioural theories of Albert Ellis, amongst others. The Rogers Core Conditions help provide the basis of the client-helper relationship whilst the Cognitive Behavioural approach of Albert Ellis can assist with the problem management stages of the model. The model is extremely flexible, and its integrative style allows for the introduction of various psychotherapeutic techniques into the helping process. Its fluidity allows the process to readily flow to any stage of the continuum to suit the clients current needs, whilst providing the helper with orientation on what stage the process is at. It has proved an enduring and successful approach to counselling and problem solving, and has readily crossed into other cultures. Egan partly describes its success as due to its logic being embedded in human beings. The problem solving process is recognised by humans around the world almost as a universal principle and therefore the stages of the model are readily identified with. The use of CBT techniques can introduce problems for under skilled helpers who may provide inappropriate guidance through the problem solving stages. The inexperienced helper may also view the model as a process of rigid stages and this may lead the helper away from the person centred relationship resulting in a poorer outcome for the client. From my own experience in the skills workshops there can be a tendency to rush through each stage of the process rather than develop the relationship at the clients own pace. 2. The key concepts and principles of the model The model breaks the helping process down into three sections, each describing a stage of the helping and problem-solving process. Each stage is further sub-divided into three tasks that help define the stage and the processes involved. Whilst in theory the implementation of the stages is sequential, in practice they overlap, and the helping process may move backwards and forwards freely between stages. Stage 1: The Current Picture This stage sets the scene and is the clients opportunity to say what is happening in their life and to tell their story. Task 1a: The Story The client is encouraged to talk and say why they have come to counselling and what is happening in their lives. The counsellor must draw upon Rogers Core Conditions and their active listening skills to build a relationship that expresses their understanding and acceptance of the client. Such skills would include open questions, reflection, paraphrasing and summarising The narrative should progress at the clients own pace. Task 1b: Blind Spots and New Perspectives The purpose of this task is to help the client recognise the blind spots in their story that they may have overlooked or not recognised, and to help them take a new perspective on them. The counsellor can draw upon their skills of advanced empathy and immediacy to raise questions that challenge the clients perception or understanding. Self-disclosure may be used with caution by the counsellor if it is felt appropriate, whilst the counsellors use of immediacy may challenge the client to consider what is going on here and now. Task 1c: Leverage As part of stages 1a and 1b the client may have raised many issues that could be discussed. However, stage 1a helps the client, through appropriate questioning, to focus and identify one issue that would bring the greater benefit and make a difference in their life. Often managing such a problem or opportunity may minimise or eliminate the other issues raised. Alternatively the large problems in a clients life may seem so unresolvable that they need reducing to smaller issues that will help the client cope with the present, and allow them to address further issues one step at a time. The issue chosen should be of sufficient gravity to continue working with, often clients will choose problems that they can manage happily themselves. It is also important that the client is able to take ownership of the problem and show commitment to resolving it before moving to stage 2 of the model. Stage 2: The Preferred Picture At stage 2 the client is helped to envisage what their ideal outcome would be, what they want their world to look like. From the future possibilities the counsellor can help the client focus on a range of objectives to work towards. Task 2a: Possibilities The client is helped to consider the possibilities for a better future and to explore what that future may be. This task often involves a level of brainstorming and creative thinking. Clients should be encouraged to use their imagination and suspend judgement. A typical question the counsellor may ask would be If you had a magic wand what would you want? Task 2b: Change Agenda From the range of possibilities identified in task 2a, workable goals can be identified which constitute the clients change agenda. The goals should be SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-based) and it is important that they are the clients goals. Task 2c: Commitment When a client leaves a counselling session and has to face the distractions of daily life, goals set at 2b are easily forgotten. The counsellor can help by ensuring that the goals chosen are appealing to the client and the clients own. The client should be helped to embrace and take ownership of the goals Stage 3 The Way Forward Without a strategy, the client may feel that the goals chosen at 2b remain unrealisable. This stage helps formulate strategies for achieving the clients goals. From these strategies a plan can be drawn to help the client move forward. Task 3a: Possible Strategies The client is encouraged to think about the possible paths that can be taken to achieve their goals. Like at stage 2a, the client should be encouraged to brainstorm and be imaginative. The counsellor may use their skills in probing and prompting to help the client focus on different avenues. Task 3b: Best-fit Strategies There may be a number of possible strategies identified at stage 3a, however not all may be suitable to the clients circumstances. At this stage the counsellor can help the client to choose the most appropriate. Ideally, the preferred strategies will be those that are most likely to succeed and that the client has enthusiasm for. 3. The Introduction of Material From Two Other Therapeutic Schools Transactional Analysis (TA) TA is a theory of personality developed by Eric Berne (1910-1970), a Canadian psychologist that looks at the analysis of social interactions. Berne stressed the importance of early life experiences on our personality and was influenced emerging humanist ideas that people are born OK. The philosophy of TA is based upon 3 assumptions: People are born OK We can all make our own decisions Nobody can make us do, think or say anything without our consent. TA comprises three key areas: A theory of personality comprising 3 ego states. Child, Adult, Parent that reflect our thoughts and behaviours A model of communication or transactions. In particular Berne was interested in what ego state people were transacting from and to. A developmental model referring to life scripts. We all develop a life script from an early age and live our life by it. Both the Egan Model and Transactional Analysis challenge clients to have a new perspective upon problems and both are influenced by Rogers Person Centred approach and the core conditions. However whilst TA is a theory of personality based upon ego states, the Egan model does not address personality or social theory and provides framework for helping into which elements of other theories can be introduced. TA therapy is generally over a much longer period than counselling under the Egan model which defines the specific goals of the counselling sessions much more clearly. Psychodynamic Therapy Psychodynamic Therapy is based upon the personality theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and psychoanalytical psychotherapy. Freud recognised a difference between the conscious and the unconscious, or repressed, mind. A mid way between the two is our pre-conscious where our subconscious filters into our dreams or fantasies. Psychodynamic counselling aims to bring the unconscious to the conscious, enabling the client to construct a more effective personality through their increased awareness. Freud developed three components of personality: Id. Our basic, unconscious instincts. Our animal drives Ego. the ego represents what may be called reason and common sense, in contrast to the id which contains the passions (Freud 1923) Superego. An internal moral, parental voice. Freud believed that our childhood influenced our later personality and that we later re-enacted the patterns established at an early age. Psychodynamic counselling focuses on early development and experiences to help the client understand the present. Psychodynamic Counselling is insight orientated and tries to gain understanding by delving into our past. The Egan approach is goal orientated, looking to a better future created by the clients own actions. Egan is built upon the Person Centred ideas of Rogers and is therefore client centred. The best person to solve the clients problem, is the client. In contrast Psychodynamic counselling is expert based. The counsellor interprets the evidence provided by the client. Egan looks to change current situations whilst Psychodynamic Counselling looks for understanding. However,the flexibility of the Egan framework allows psychodynamic, or other, theories to be introduced if the counsellor believes this would be of benefit. 5. Recognition of Using Methods and Techniques Without Adequate Training